The Perfection of Generosity
(//Dana-parami//)
Translated by
Saya U Chit Tin, WKH
Assistants
U San Myint Aung, B.A.
William Pruitt, Ph.D.
--------------------------------
Copyright
by: The Sayagyi U Ba Khin Memorial Trust, U.K.
Splatts House, Heddington near Calne, GB.
Printed as Dhammadana Series 3
This gift of Dhamma is made possible through Dana given to the
Publication
Account Fund of the Sayagyi U Ba Khin Memorial trust by two
meditators in
their grandparents' name.
First Printing 1987
Printed in France
Dedicated to our much revered Teacher
the late Sayagyi U Ba Khin (Thray Sithu)
----------------------------------
DharmaNet Edition 1994
This electronic
edition is offered for free distribution
via DharmaNet by arrangement with the publisher.
Electronic format: Barry Kapke
DharmaNet International
P.O. Box 4951, Berkeley CA
94704-4951
----------------------------------
1. Dana: Generosity
May I be generous
and helpful.
2. Sila: Morality
May I be well-disciplined
and refined in manners.
May I be pure
and clean in all my dealings.
May my thoughts,
words and deeds be pure.
3. Nekkhama: Renunciation
May I not be
selfish and self-possessive, but selfless and disinterested.
May I be able
to sacrifice my pleasure for the sake of others.
4. Panna: Wisdom
May I be wise
and able to see things as they truly are.
May I see the
light of truth and lead others from darkness to light.
May I be enlightened
and be able to enlighten others.
5. Viriya: Energy
May I be energetic,
vigorous and persevering.
May I strive
diligently until I achieve my goal.
May I be fearless
in facing dangers and courageously surmount all obstacles.
May I be able
to serve others to the best of my ability.
6. Khanti: Patience
May I ever be
patient.
May I be able
to bear and forbear the wrongs of others.
May I ever be
tolerant and see the good and beautiful in all.
7. Sacca: Truthfulness
May I ever be
truthful and honest.
May I not swerve
from the path of truth.
8. Adhitthana: Determination
May I be firm
and resolute and have an iron will.
May I be soft
as a flower and firm as a rock.
May I ever be
high-principled.
9. Metta: Loving Kindness
May I ever be
kind, friendly and compassionate.
May I be able
to regard all as my brothers and sisters and be one with all.
10. Upekkha: Equanimity
May I ever be
calm, serene, unruffled and peaceful.
May I gain a
balanced mind.
May I have perfect
equanimity.
May I serve to
be perfect.
May I be perfect
to serve.
Sadhu Sadhu Sadhu.
---------------------------------------------
CONTENTS
Foreword
Preface
Some Aspects of the Ten Perfections
Introduction
Preface to the Perfection of Generosity
THE PERFECTION OF GENEROSITY (//DANA PARAMI//)
The Importance of Generosity
Gifts to the Sangha
Types of Gifts
Generosity and Abandonment
Akitti's Generosity
The Greatest Abandonings as Generosity
The Brief Definition of Generosity
Analysis according to the Abhidhamma method
TYPES OF GIFTS BY PAIRS (22 groups)
Gifts to Individuals (14 kinds)
5 Good results of Giving Food
4 Purities for Generosity
7 Types of Gifts to the Sangha
The Example of Ugga
Gifts to Individual Monks representing the Sangha
The Incomparable Gift of King Pasenadi
TYPES OF GIFTS BY THREES
Gifts to the Dhamma, the Example of Ananda
Gifts which it is Painful to Give:
The example of Darubhandaka
The example of Bhattabhatika
The example of the Poor Girl
TYPES OF GIFTS BY FOURS
TYPES OF GIFTS BY FIVES
Vessantara and the Gift of Intoxicants
TYPES OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF SIX
TYPES OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF SEVEN
TYPES OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF EIGHT
TYPES OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF NINE
King Pasenadi and Bribes
TYPES OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF TEN
TYPES OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF FOURTEEN
THE GOOD RESULTS OF GIFTS
The example of Velukantaki
The example in the Mahadhammapala Jataka
ON FAITH AND GIFTS
APPENDICES
International Meditation Centres
Address list of Centres and groups in the Tradition of Sayagyi
U Ba Khin.
------------------------------------------------
HOW BODHISATTA DEVELOP THE PERFECTIONS
"Bodhisattas' minds maintain their balance by giving preference
to other
beings' welfare, by dislike of the suffering of others, by desiring
that
the success of others endure, and by impartiality towards all
beings.
They give gifts (//Dana//) to all beings (without showing preference).
They undertake the precepts of virtue (//Sila//) in order to
avoid harming
living beings. They perfect their virtue by practising renunciation
(//Nekkhamma//). They purify their wisdom (//Panna//) in order
to
understand clearly what is beneficial and what is harmful to
living
beings. They constantly arouse energy (//Viriya//), keeping
the welfare
and happiness of others in mind. When they have acquired heroic
fortitude
through supreme energy, they become patient (//Khanti//) with
the many
failings or shortcomings of others. Once they promise to give
or do
something, they do not break their promise (thus they are truthful,
//sacca//). With unshakable resolution (//Aditthana//) they
work for the
welfare and happiness of others. They place others before themselves
through unshakable loving kindness (//Metta//). They do not
expect
anything in return through equanimity (//Upekkha//)."
Ashin Maha Buddhaghosa,
//The Path of Purification// (Ch.iX, par. 124)
--------------------------------------------------
FOREWORD
For those of us who cannot remember our own past lives or see
the past
lives of others, it is not always possible to appreciate our
good fortune
in being born as humans during a period when the teachings of
a Buddha are
available. As Sayagyi U Ba Khin points out in his lectures "What
Buddhism
Is", the last Buddha had to continue working for four //asankheyyas//
(a
number of world cycles equal to 1 followed by 140 ciphers) and
one hundred
thousand //kappas// (world cycles).
We can all appreciate that not just anybody can pick up a tennis
racket
and walk off with first prize at Wimbledon. But we may not appreciate
the
preparation that is necessary in order to win first prize in
liberation.
Concentrating the mind and understanding that conditioned existence
is
unsatisfactory, changing and uncontrollable is not just a matter
of
sitting still and closing your eyes. We must work hard on leading
moral
lives, and we must go into training with the ten perfections
(//paramis//
or //paramitas//): generosity, morality, renunciation, wisdom,
perseverence or effort, forbearance or patience, truthfulness,
determination, loving-kindness, and even mindedness or equanimity.
These ten virtues may be obvious and self explanatory. But I
think if you
are not from a Buddhist background, like me, you will occasionally
find in
an explanation such as the one we publish here certain aspects
you did not
expect. The more thoroughly we grasp the idea of these virtues
the better
we will be able to live them in our lives. And when we come
to take the
next step, we will find we have been preparing ourselves to
control our
minds and to attain true happiness. Not that one stops practising
virtuous
acts once he begins to meditate! Far from it. Each part of the
teaching
helps others. The more we advance in one, the more we will work
on the
others.
As Sayagyi said in his introduction to the International Meditation
Centre, Rangoon, "Individual development (in meditation) depends
on one's
own //Paramita// (perfections) and his capability to fulfill
the five
Elements of Effort (//Padhaniyanga//), viz. Faith, Health, Sincerity,
Energy and Wisdom."
It is our hope that these publications will serve as an inspiration
to
those practising on the path leading to Nibbana.
Peace to all beings
Sayagyi U Ba Khin Memorial Trust
U.K.
PREFACE
We are happy to be able to translate, adapt and publish this
extract from
a modern-day commentary on a Buddhist text which was published
in Burmese
in 1960. The Zambumeikswe Pitaka Press and Publishing House
of Rangoon,
Burma, originally published in 1935 a work by the Venerable
Sayadaw of
Ngarkhon village, popularly known by his Burmese title, Venerable
Ngarkhon
Sayadaw, who lived during the reign of King Bagyidaw (ruled
1819-1837).
The king conferred the title of `Adiccavamsabhidhaja
Mahadhammarajadirajaguru' on him for his great learning. His
work deals
with the efforts leading up to the Enlightenment of the Buddha
Gotama.
Efforts were made to add more material to this by a learned
layman:
Aggamaha Pandita Sayagyi U Lin, M.A., and finally, Tipitakadhara
Dhammabhandagarika Sayadaw Ashin Vicittasaraghivamsa, Aggamaha
Pandita
Abhidaja Maha Ratthaguru was responsible for polishing the text
and using
an up-to-date vocabulary in Burmese. The title is //Mahabuddhavamsa//
which we can translate by //The Great Chronicle of Buddhas//.
(We refer to
it hereafter as `the Burmese Commentary'.)
The Burmese translation has been adapted for Western readers.
We have used
English translations of the texts quoted from the Pali canon
and
commentaries whenever available. At times we have felt it was
necessary to
give more details so the texts would be readily understood by
people
without previous knowledge of Buddhism. We are entirely responsible
for
the English version.
The Burmese commentary is based on the //Buddhavamsa// in the
Pali canon
(translated into English by I.B. Horner, //Chronicle of Buddhas//,
Pali
Text Society) and the extensive commentary on it by Buddhadatta
(translated into English by I.B. Horner, //The Clarifier of
the Sweet
Meaning//, PTS). These works give the details concerning
the efforts to
become a Buddha made by Gotama and an account of the twenty-four
Buddhas
who preceded him.
One of the most important aspects of the preparation to be a
Buddha is the
accomplishment of the ten perfections. A Bodhisatta (Buddha-to-be)
must
fulfill the perfections in three degrees:
1. to the degree which suffices for becoming an Arahat
(fully-
enlightened) and involves the sacrifice of external possessions,
2. to the higher degree which suffices for becoming a chief
disciple and
involves the sacrifice of one's limbs, and
3. the ultimate degree, leading to Buddhahood and involving
the sacrifice
of one's life.
The account of the period of preparation for Buddhahood begins
when the
resolution to become a Buddha is first made and confirmed by
a Buddha. In
the case of Gotama, this occured when he was a hermit named
Sumedha and
the prediction was given by the Buddha Dipankara (the twenty-fourth
Buddha
before Gotama). It is after a Buddha confirms his resolution
that a
Boddhisatta reflects on what must be done to accomplish this,
and he
passes in review the ten perfections. At the time he met the
Buddha
Dipankara, Sumedha had already practised the ten perfections
to the degree
of becoming an Arahat and the only reason he did not become
enlightened
was that he wished to become a Buddha himself. So the accounts
we have of
his practice of the perfections in texts such as the Jataka
stories are
examples of the higher efforts. It may be useful to bear this
in mind if
the Bodhisatta's example seems too difficult for us to emulate.
The text on the ten perfections which is translated and adapted
here is
from an appendix (or //Anu-dipani//, `Further commentary') to
the Burmese
commentary. This appendix gives supplementary information concerning
various aspects of the Bodhisatta's career, but we have included
here only
the discussion on the ten perfections as a text particularly
useful for
students of Buddhist meditation.
Saya U Chit Tin,
Heddington, 19th January 1984
SOME ASPECTS OF THE TEN PERFECTIONS, FROM "A TREATISE ON THE PARAMIS"
The commentary to the "Basket of Conduct" is a detailed essay
on the ten
perfections. It has been translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi under the
title, `A
Treatise on the Paramis'. The discussion is organized around
a series of
questions, similar to the style used in commentaries such as
the
//Visuddhimagga//. Much of the information in this commentary
was included
in the discussion on the perfections in the appendix of the
Burmese
commentary that we have translated here. For a general discussion
of all
ten perfections taken together, we use here the translation
by Bhikkhu
Bodhi. More details may be had by consulting the full translation.
The
"Treatise" primarily considers the perfections as they are developed
by a
Bodhisatta. We have confined our discussion here to the aspects
that would
apply to everyone working towards enlightenment.
The perfections are noble qualities which are all accompanied
by
compassion and skilful means, and are untainted by craving,
conceit and
wrong views. "Skilful means" (//Upaya-kosalla//) is the wisdom
that
transforms the ten perfections into requisites of enlightenment.
This
wisdom and compassion are responsible for the balanced approach
that
motivates and enables a Bodhisatta to attain Buddhahood. For
example:
through wisdom he understands the suffering of others, through
compassion
he strives to alleviate their suffering. Through compassion
he enters
continued rebirths (//samsara//), through wisdom he does not
delight in
it. Through wisdom he is free from "I-making" and "my-making",
through
compassion he is free from lethargy and depression.
Several explanations are given concerning the order of the ten
perfections. The order in which they are given follows the order
in which
the Bodhisatta considers them after making his first vow to
become a
Buddha.
A general explanation for the ten perfections includes:
1) Generosity (//Dana//), first, because it aids the development
of
virtue and is easy to practise. It is common to all beings (even
ordinary
people give) and is the least fruitful.
2) Virtue (//Sila//) purifies both the donor and the recipient.
Generosity benefits others and virtue is a complement to that
by
preventing the affliction of others. Generosity will lead to
wealth in
future lives. Virtue will lead to favourable states of existence.
3) Renunciation (//Nekkhamma//) is the complement to virtue
as virtue
means good conduct of body and speech whereas renunciation is
good conduct
of mind. Renunciation means abandoning the mental obsessions
through
concentration of the mind (//Jhana//). Concentration succeeds
easily when
virtue is pure.
4) Wisdom (//Panna//) is next as it is possible once concentration
is
developed. Renunciation leads to serenity, and wisdom leads
to equanimity.
5) Energy (//Viriya//) comes next as wisdom is perfected
through the
arousing of energy. Energy is the basis for exertion and wisdom
the basis
of equanimity. Arousing energy is mentioned after the activity
of careful
consideration, as this approach gives excellent results.
6) Patience (//Khanti//) is a basis for serenity and comes
after the
basis for exertion, for restlessness due to excessive activity
is
abandoned through reflective acquiescence in the Dhamma. One
who is
patient and free from restlessness will persevere in his work.
7) Truthfulness (//Sacca//) is next because the determination
to practise
patience continues long through truthfulness.
8) Determination (//Adhitthana//) comes next because abstinence
from
falsehood becomes perfect when determination is unshakeable.
Non-deception
in speech is complemented by unshakeable commitment to one's
word.
9) Loving kindness (//Metta//) is next, for loving kindness
perfects the
determination to work for the welfare of others and the work
which
actually provides for others' welfare is stated just after making
the
determination to do so. This undertaking will be unperturbed
only when
determination is unshakeable.
10) Equanimity (//Upekkha//) purifies loving kindness.
This shows the
indifference that must be maintained towards the wrongs inflicted
by
others when providing for their welfare. This includes developing
the
quality of remaining impartial even towards those who wish one
well.
All the perfections have as their characteristic the benefitting
of
others. Their function is rendering help to others, or, not
vacillating.
Their manifestation is the wish for the welfare of others, or,
for a
bodhisatta, the wish for Buddhahood. Their proximate cause is
great
compassion, or compassion and skillful means.
They can be defiled by various kinds of wavering thoughts or
indecision
(//vikappa//). Wavering thoughts about:
1) what to give and whom to give to (generosity),
2) when to act and how to act towards whom (virtue),
3) delight in sensual pleasures and continued existence and discontent
if
they cease (renunciation),
4) "I" and "mine" (wisdom),
5) being inclined to listlessness and restlessness (energy),
6) oneself and others (patience),
7) claiming to have seen what one has not seen, etc. (truthfulness),
8) the requisites of enlightenment -- finding fault with them
and seeing
virtue in their opposites (determination),
9) what is harmful and what is beneficial -- being confused about
these
(loving kindness), and
10) the desirable and the undesirable (equanimity).
The perfections are cleansed when the mind is free from such
wavering
thoughts. They become pure and luminous when they are not tainted
by
defilements such as: craving, conceit, views, anger, malice,
denigration,
domineering, envy, stinginess, craftiness, hypocrisy, obstinacy,
presumption, vanity, and negligence.
Their opposites:
1) giving: stinginess,
2) virtue: moral depravity,
3) renunciation: sensual pleasures and the household life,
4) wisdom (knowing things as they really are): ignorance and perplexity,
5) energy: laziness,
6) patience: impatience,
7) truthfulness: deceptive speech,
8) determination: lack of determination,
9) loving kindness: ill will,
10) equanimity: not seeing danger in the vicissitudes of
the world.
In general, all the perfections have all the defilements and
unwholesome
mental states as their opposites. They are all opposed to greed,
hatred
and delusion in the following ways:
1) giving applies the qualities of non-greed, non-hatred and
non-delusion
to gifts, recipients and the fruits of giving,
2) virtue removes crookedness and corruption in bodily conduct, etc.,
3) renunciation avoids indulgence in sensual pleasures, the affliction
of
others and self mortification,
4) wisdom restores sight when one has been blinded by them,
5) energy arouses the true way free from listlessness and restlessness,
6) patience accepts equally the desirable, the undesirable and emptiness,
7) truthfulness proceeds in accordance with the fact whether
others give
help or inflict harm,
8) determination vanquishes the vicissitudes of the world and
remains
unshakable in fulfilling the requisites of enlightenment,
9) loving kindness is secluded from the hindrances, and
10) equanimity dispells attraction and repulsion towards desirable
and
undesirable objects, proceeding evenly under varying circumstances.
Many more details are given concerning the individual perfections
and much
of this information is included in the discussion of each below.
There are
also many aspects of the perfections as developed by a Bodhisatta.
The
high level to which a Bodhisatta fulfills the perfections can
serve as an
aspiration to all, even if others' ability is less. We have
not included
all the details for the "Treatise" here, however, as it would
make the
text too long. The interested reader should consult Bhikkhu
Bodhi's
translation of the "Treatise".
William Pruitt
Heddington, 19th January 1985
INTRODUCTION
Sayagyi U Ba Khin taught that when making a gift the donor should
bear in
mind the impermanence of the receiver, the gift and of himself.
This
should be done before, during and after the gift is made. The
person who
has made enough progress in Vipassana meditation can in addition
be aware
of the occurrence of change (//Anicca//) inside his body as
he makes his
gift. In Buddhaghosa's commentary on the first book of the Abhidhamma,
this is called a gift accompanied by development of the mind
or meditation
(see //The Expositor//, PTS, p.103 where //Bhavana// is translated
by
"culture"). In this type of gift we find many accomplishments
united.
During the act of giving there is absence of greed and this
means one is
conquering desire (//Lobha//). As this is a virtous act, there
is absence
of hate (//Dosa//). Through meditation we overcome delusion
(//Moha//). In
other words, a gift that is given in this way, overcomes the
three roots
(//Mula//) of unwholesome acts. At the same time we are fulfilling
morality (//Sila//), concentration (//Samadhi//) and insight
(//Panna//)
(see //The Expositor"// p.167).
This is a good illustration of how interconnected the various
aspects of
the Buddha's teachings are. We cannot just work on one aspect
at a time.
Each part of the teaching gives support to the other parts.
Direct
experiencing of impermanence, however, is perhaps one of the
most
difficult things for us to do. If we have not already prepared
through
generosity and progress in concentration, we will not be able
to feel the
rapid changes taking place within us. But even if this should
be the case,
we can still have an intellectual appreciation that nothing
we know in the
world is permanent, lasting, eternal.
The present commentary shows us that even the most imperfect
of gifts will
result in some benefits for us. If we study the various categories
given
here, it is soon obvious that the single most important factor
is what
goes on in the mind of the giver, before, during and after making
the
gift. If we have no control over our minds, we will not choose
proper
gifts, the best recipient for our gift; we will be unable to
prepare the
gifts properly or to present them properly. And we may be foolish
enough
to regret having made the gift afterwards.
No matter what level we are on, the best thing for each of us
to do is to
be sure we are working for the right goal and that we are making
best use
of every opportunity we have for progressing towards that goal.
When the
Venerable Webu Sayadaw asked Sayagyi U Ba Khin what his goal
was, Sayagyi
answered, "Nibbanic peace within". Then Webu sayadaw asked what
he was
doing to attain that goal and Sayagyi answered, "I am experiencing
//Anicca// inside myself at this moment".
For those of us who are laymen and who are practising the development
of
our minds, Sayagyi U Ba Khin is an example to inspire us all.
In his own
words, "Our goal: Nibbanic Peace Within for All!"
Saya U Chit Tin
Heddington, 19th January 1983
PREFACE TO THE PERFECTION OF GENEROSITY
(//DANA PARAMI//)
It is instructive to compare the Buddhist approach to generosity
with the
Western attitude. Many Westerners are surprised to find that
it is
considered best to give a person who is highly developed in
the practise
of the Buddha's teachings rather than give priority to charity
to the poor
and unfortunate. The text given here gives us enough explanations
to help
us understand why this is so.
We are caught up in the cycle of birth-life-death repeated over
and over.
Our deeds in past lives determine where we are born in a present
life, the
circumstances we find ourselves in and what happens to us. The
act of
giving is accompanied by a certain mental attitude. This mental
attitude
is the most important of the acts we do, for it determines the
rest. The
more highly developed the person is to whom we give, the better
our mental
attitude.
But we should not fall into the error of seeing this as a conscious
decision we must make. In Buddhism, all acts of generosity,
no matter how
imperfect, are considered positive acts. The Buddha said, "If
one should
throw away pot scourings or the rinsings of cups into a pool
or cesspit,
with the idea of feeding the creatures that live therin, I declare
it
would be a source of merit to him: to say nothing of his feeding
beings
that are human." A person working to become a Buddha must be
careful to
give with spontaneity, without choosing between recipients.
And this is
the attitude we find in Buddhist countries. Like a Burmese friend
who woke
up one morning saying he'd just been dreaming that he had taken
a poor
beggar for a meal. They practise generosity even in their sleep!
Another point we may find useful is that making a gift to someone
we
dislike is one of the ways to overcome our hatred. There will
be some love
present while a gift is made. Love and hate cannot be present
in the mind
both at the same time. So, for a moment, our hatred will be
overcome. And
there's often the side-effect that the person will be better
disposed
towards us afterwards.
We should also learn how to receive gifts. If everyone turned
down gifts,
no one would be able to make merit. But we often find it easier
to give
than to receive. Perhaps we are too prone to try and guess the
ulterior
motives behind the gifts. This is not to say that these should
never be
taken into consideration, of course. As a high public official,
Sayagyi U
Ba Khin was careful not to accept contributions to the International
Meditation Centre from persons who were hoping to obtain favours
from him
in his official capacity. But anyone whose motive was correct
could
contribute.
May this text serve to help us better understand the place of
generosity
in the Buddha's teachings and be an inspiration to us in working
to cut
through the vicious circle of continued birth and death.
Sayagyi U Ba Khin Memorial trust
Heddington, 19th January 1985
Namo tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammasambuddhassa
Ciram Titthatu Saddhamo
THE PERFECTION OF GENEROSITY
(//DANA PARAMI//)
The Importance of Generosity
In the "Chronicle of Buddhas" (//Buddhavamsa//) the Bodhisatta
Sumedha
admonished himself to practise generosity (//Dana//) as the
first
perfection, just as Bodhisattas of the past had done. So we
see that
giving or generosity has a very important place among the ten
perfections.
In the canon, however, we find the Buddha teaching as follows:
When a wise man, established well
in Virtue,
Develops Consciousness and Understanding,
Then as a bhikkhu ardent and sagacious
He succeeds in disentangling this
tangle.
He only mentions the three trainings: morality (//Sila//), concentration
(//Samadhi//) and wisdom (//Panna//). Buddhagosa in his commentary
on this
text in //The Path of Purification// makes no mention of generosity
(//Dana//). In the Eightfold Noble Path, too, there is no path
including
generosity. The paths only include morality, concentration,
wisdom.
Therefore some people pretend that generosity is not part of
the Buddha's
teachings. As it does not lead directly to Liberation, and as
it is only
the means for living more life cycles, we should not cultivate
generosity.
One well-known Burmese minister, U Hlaing from Yaw, wrote that
the Buddha
taught generosity for the sake of ordinary people such as the
rich man's
son Sunaga.
Many Buddhists are impatient with such views, but impatience
is not
helpful. It is important to understand what the Buddha taught.
The
discourse of the Buddha mentioned above is meant for those who
are ready
to reach the stage of full enlightenment (Arahatship) in the
present life.
They will not be born again. Generosity is an act which leads
to new life,
new pleasures. As the Arahat is in his last life, he has no
need to
develop in generosity. That is why the Buddha mentions only
morality,
concentration and wisdom and does not mention generosity for
these people.
For someone who is not ready to become an Arahat in this life,
generosity
has the quality of making the mind more pliable. When someone
is being
generous, his mind is already more pliable, enabling him to
observe
morality, to concentrate and to develop insight. Many Buddhists
have
experienced for themselves the shyness that results when they
visit a
monastery without an offering. That is why the noble disciples
like the
layman Visaka (the husband of Dhammadinna) always brought an
offering when
they went to visit the Buddha: sweets and the like in the morning
or
beverages and medicines in the evening.
Everyone who does not become an Arahat in this life will go through
more
life cycles. If they do not practise generosity now, it will
be difficult
to be born in favourable conditions. And even if they obtain
a good
rebirth, they will not have enough possessions to do meritorious
deeds.
We cannot beg the question by saying in such a case we would
cultivate
morality, concentration and wisdom. It is only as a result of
past
generosity that one can cultivate these three trainings. So
it is
important for those who are faced with future lives to cultivate
generosity.
Bodhisattas are the most important individuals among those who
will
continue with future life cycles. After having received a sure
prediction
from a Buddha, they must continue to work for omniscience (//Sabbannuta//)
for four //asankheyyas// (a number of years equal to 1 followed
by 140
ciphers) and a hundred thousand world cycles. The perfection
of generosity
is of primary importance for them. Therefore, those who have
not yet
fulfilled their perfections should not say that generosity is
not
necessary, simply because there are statements in the canon
addressed to
those who are ready to become Arahats.
Some people ask if it is possible to reach Nibbana by practising
only
generosity. Liberation cannot be attained by only practising
generosity
nor by practising only morality, or even through exclusively
practising
meditation. Meditating without morality will not give lasting
results as
that would mean the meditator would be indulging in evil acts.
His efforts
to meditate would be like a seed turned to ashes because it
was put on a
burning iron.
Gifts to the Sangha
Seven kinds of gifts to the Sangha (the Community of Bhikkhus)
and
fourteen kinds for ordinary beings are mentioned in the //Dakkhinavibhanga
Sutta// (//The Middle Length Sayings//, III). In regards to
ordinary
beings it is pointed out that the merit gained increases depending
on the
receiver, going from animals to the most noble people. Giving
to the
Sangha is even more meritorious. In the passage on generosity
in the
//Chronicle of Buddhas//, it is clearly stated that a Bodhisatta
should
give alms irrespective of the receiver's status.
An illustration of the greater merit acquired in giving to the
Sangha is
found in the Stories of the Departed (//Minor Anthologies//,
IV, PTS).
When the Buddha taught the Abhidhamma in the Tavatimsa abode
(the second
of the deva worlds), two devas came to listen, named Ankura
and Indaka.
Whenever more powerful devas came, Ankura had to move back out
of their
way, and finally wound up a great distance away from the Buddha.
Indaka,
however, did not have to move. Ankura had taken rebirth as a
deva because
of the merit he made in being extraordinarily generous to ordinary
human
beings over a period of many years during a human life in which
he was
very rich. Indaka became a deva because he had given a spoonful
of rice to
the Arahat Anuruddha. This gift meant that he was the equal
of the more
powerful devas that Ankura had to make way for. That is why
it is said in
the canon, //Viceyya danam databbam, yattha dinnam mahapphalam//.
("A gift
is to be given having determined who as the receiver will mean
great
merit.")
The seeming contradiction between giving irrespective of the
receiver's
status and giving after having chosen the receiver who will
procure us the
most merit is resolved if we take the above passages in context.
The
passage in the //Chronicle of Buddhas// discusses the perfections
as they
are to be developed by Bodhisattas. Bodhisattas work for the
attainment of
Buddha-Wisdom, omniscience (//Sabbannuta//), and this wisdom
is not
subdivided by degrees into lesser wisdom, medium wisdom, noble
wisdom. In
order to attain this unique wisdom, they must develop perfections
such as
generosity as fully as possible. Ordinary people or devas give
gifts in
order to obtain various worldly pleasures, so it is normal that
they
should want their gift to result in the greatest benefit. Therefore
they
consider who would be the best recipient of their donation.
Types of gifts
The main thing to remember concerning the word //Danaparami//
(the
perfection of generosity) is that anything which is given away
is //Dana//
(generosity, charity). There are two kinds of giving: 1. meritorious
giving (//Punnavisayadana//) and 2. worldly giving (//Lokavisayadana//).
Gifts given out of pure faith and right intentions are meritorious
giving.
They are part of the perfection of generosity. But gifts given
in a love
affair, or out of anger, fear, foolishness, etc., or by way
of punishment,
these are wordly giving; they do not come under the perfection
of
generosity.
//Dana// (generosity) and //Pariccaga// (abandonment)
In the //Mahahamsa Jataka// (no. 534) the following virtues are
listed:
generosity, morality, renunciation, uprightness, mildness, self-control,
conciliation, mercy, patience, gentleness. These are the ten
duties of a
king and we can see that //dana// (generosity) and //pariccaga//
(renunciation, abandonment; also translated as charity) are
mentioned
separately.
There are ten things to be given: food, drink, clothing, transportation,
flowers, perfumed unguent or powder, ointment, bed, dwelling-place,
light
(//anna, pana, vattha, yana, mala, gandha, vilepana, seyya,
avasatha,
padipeyya//). The sub-commentary of the //Mahahamsa Jataka//
points out
that "//Dana// is giving suitable things in order to enjoy good
results in
future lives; //Pariccaga// is giving rewards etc. to servants
etc. in
order to benefit in the present life." The intention or volition
accompanying the gift is what makes it //Dana//.
Akitti's Generosity
Another illustration of the difference between generosity and
abandonment
can be found in the //Akitti Jataka// (no.480). The Bodhisatta
was once a
brahman by the name of Akitti. After the death of his parents
he observed
that they had accumulated wealth, but could not take it with
them when
they died. He determined to accumulate the kind of wealth one
can take
along after death (i.e., good deeds). So he asked permission
of the king
and had a drum beaten around the town and a great donation proclaimed.
For seven days he gave away his wealth, but there still remained
more.
Anxious to renounce the world he decided there was no point
in taking
pleasure in the ceremony of the gifts. So he renounced worldly
life and
went away leaving the doors open to his house for all who wished
to take
to come and take. In the example, the seven days during which
the
Bodhisatta distributes his wealth is an example of generosity
(//Dana//)
and the abandoning of the rest at the end is an example of abandonment
(//Pariccaga//). The reason is that four conditions must be
fulfilled for
there to be //Dana//: 1. a donor, 2. suitable things to be given,
3. a
recipient, 4. the volition to give. Akitti's distribution of
wealth during
the seven days fulfills all these conditions, whereas he renounced
the
world before the recipients came to collect the gifts after
that, so the
second case is abandonment.
It is also possible to differentiate as follows: giving to noble
persons
(i.e., stream enterer or higher) is //Dana//, whereas giving
to those who
are ordinary humans (or lower, as in the case of animals) is
//Pariccaga//. This would be the sort of distinction implied
in the text
of the //Mahahamsa Jataka// speaking of the ten duties of a
king. Alms
given to monks, noble brahmans, etc. would be generosity (//Dana//);
gifts
to beggars would be abandonment (//Pariccaga//).
Although //Dana// and //Pariccaga// can be differentiated in
this way,
their basic nature is the same. For giving suitable gifts to
recipients is
generosity (//Dana//) whether they are near or far. If one bears
in mind
that property is not owned, then that is abandoning (//Pariccaga//).
Abandoning is included in generosity. Before one can give, one
must
consider, "I will not use that gift any longer." In the //Chronicle
of
Buddhas// only the perfection of generosity (//Dana//) is mentioned,
not
abandoning (//caga//, abandoning or liberality; cf. //pariccaga//).
As
this text describes things according to the truth (//Dhamma//),
we can
conclude that giving a suitable gift to any recipient, irrespective
of
status, is generosity (//Dana//). Therefore, we do not need
to distinguish
between whether a gift goes to a noble person or not.
Similarly, we should remember that generosity (//Dana//) is included
in
liberality (//caga//) which is included in the seven riches
of a noble or
moral person (mentioned in the //Anguttara Nikaya//).
The Greatest Abandonings (//Maha-paricaga//) as Generosity
In the commentaries five gifts are mentioned as the greatest
abandonings:
giving one's limbs, one's eyes, wealth, kingdom, wife and children
(//anga, nayana, dhana, rajja, puttadara//). The terms used
for these five
gifts vary according to the commentator. Giving one's body or
life
(//atta//) is found instead of wealth. The sub-commentary to
//The Path of
Purification// substitutes abandoning one's body or life for
one's limbs.
The commentary to //The Chronicle of Buddhas// substitutes life
(//jivita//) for eyes. The commentary to the //Vessantara Jataka//
(no.
547) gives: limbs, life, wealth, kingdom, children (//putta//)
and wife
(//bhariya//), separating the last item into two. The same list
is found
in the sub-commentary to the //Jinalankara//. But the essentials
are the
same in these lists: material things apart from one's body (wealth,
kingdom, wife and children) and one's body (limbs, eyes, life).
Giving
one's eyes means running the risk of losing one's life, so these
can be
considered one and the same, making five gifts.
The Brief Definition of Generosity (Dana)
The essential elements that must be present are the volition
to give and
suitable things to be given. Without the volition to give there
can be no
generosity. The volition is present at the time of the donation.
It is
called relinquishing volition (//munca cetana//), and it is
the main
element involved in generosity. Anticipating volition (//pubba
cetana//)
is the desire to give which exists before one makes the donation.
If the
thing to be given is at hand, this can be called generosity.
If the
volition to give exists without the object to be given being
in the
donor's possession it is merely a sentiment of benevolence.
Some people ask why things to be given are called //Dana//, for
only
mental volition (//cetana//) determines acts which bring future
results.
This is true: no results can be associated with things; but,
as they are a
joint cause for generosity, we must say they have the power
to yield
results. For example, we say that rice is properly cooked because
of the
fuel we use. Actually, it is the fire that cooks the rice. But
the fire
cannot appear if there is no fuel. So it is not incorrect for
us to say,
"The rice is properly cooked because the fuel is good." Likewise,
we can
say, "One obtains beneficial results because of things given."
In the texts of the canon there are lists of things to be given
in
//Dana//. In the Vinaya, four things are mentioned: food, robes,
monasteries and medicine. Some people take this list to be exclusive.
But
it should rather be seen as the requisites that the Buddha allowed
the
Sangha. In the Abhidhamma, gifts are listed as of six sorts,
corresponding
to the six senses: visible, making sounds, odiferous, with taste,
objects
of touch, and mental objects. This list too is not a list to
limit the
types of //Dana// but rather a way to analyse them. In the Suttas,
some
people maintain, there are ten kinds of //Dana//, the ten cited
above from
the //Mahahamsa Jataka//. But here again we should take this
as a list of
ten possible gifts, not a list of the only gifts to be given.
We should keep in mind that the most important element that must
be
present for there to be //Dana// is volition (//cetana//) to
give.
Analysis according to the Abhidhamma method
For a thorough analysis of generosity we should give its characteristic
mark (//lakkhana//), function and propery (//kicca//- and //sampatti-
rasa//), reappearance as phenomenon and effect (//upatthanakara//-
and
//phala-paccupatthana//), and proximate cause (//padatthana//).
//Dana// has the characteristic mark of abandoning. Its function
and
property is to destroy attachment to the things to be given,
or to be in
possession of guiltlessness. Its effect is a sense of freedom
from
attachment or knowing that it leads to future existence (//bhava//)
and
wealth (//bhoga//). This last point means that when we think
about the
effects of generosity we sense that giving will result in being
a human
being, deva, etc. in future lives, with great wealth. The proximate
cause
for giving is things to be given. Without something to be given
there can
be no gift -- only imagining that one gives: so things to be
given are the
proximate cause for //Dana//.
TYPES OF GIFTS BY PAIRS (22 groups)
1) Material gifts (//Amisa dana//) and the gift of the teaching
(//Dhamma
dana//).
Material gifts include giving cooked rice, etc. This includes
also giving
the requisites (//paccaya//) to monks. Disseminating the teachings
of the
Buddha (//Dhamma//) through talks, etc. is the gift of the teaching.
The
Buddha said that this was the noblest of all gifts. This is
the division
of types of gifts according to the things given.
Some people question whether establishing a pagoda and giving
statues of
the Buddha can be called //Dana//. They maintain that for the
gift to be
complete there must be a receiver. They say that these objects
should be
considered from the point of view of recollection of the qualities
of the
Buddha, that these objects help by reminding us of these qualities.
Others say these objects should be considered as honouring (//apacayana//)
the Buddha, etc. They would include these acts under morality
(//sila//)
as right action (//Caritta//). Recollection of the qualities
of the
Buddha, honouring the Buddha and observing the moral precepts
do not
involve giving, however. A person who establishes a pagoda or
who installs
a statue must spend a large sum of money. Therefore, these acts
come under
//Dana//.
The question of who receives the gift still remains. Those who
use the
pagodas and who pay respect to the statues as representatives
of the
Buddha, both devas and human beings, are the recipients. If
we dug wells
and ponds to be used by the general public for drinking water,
washing,
etc., we would not question whether such an act was //Dana//.
So even
though the giver may not have a particular person in mind whem
he makes a
gift, but means for it to serve the general public, there is
still a
recipient and the action is one of //Dana//.
Pagodas and statues are worthy gifts to give for they are sacred,
appropriate for keeping relics of the Buddha, just as the cupboards
and
shelves in a monastery are meant to hold the canonical texts.
Another issue that may be mentioned in passing is the practice
of slowly
pouring out water when a gift is made. This is a traditional
ceremony
which comes from India. It is important for those who have a
high regard
for the ceremony, but for those who do not attach importance
to this
practice, there is no reproach. The ceremony is entirely optional.
A person who is unable or incapable of teaching the Dhamma can
make a gift
of the teachings by donating books on the Dhamma. It is like
someone who
cannot prepare and administer a medicine for a sick person,
but who can
show the method for preparing the remedy.
This pair of gifts can also be called "honouring with material
gifts"
(//Amisa puja//) and "honouring with the teaching" (//Dhamma
puja//); the
terms mean the same thing. The word //puja// is often used when
a younger
person or less noble person gives to an older person or a person
who is
more noble (i.e., more advanced in liberation). This can be
called
"honouring with a gift" (//Puja dana//) and a gift by the older
or more
noble to the younger or less noble is called "a gift out of
kindness"
(//Anuggaha dana//). This is not a true division of generosity
into two
aspects, but rather a division based on general usage.
2) Gifts of one's own person (//Ajjhattika//) and gifts
of externals or
property (//Bahira//).
Gifts of one's own person include giving life and limbs. Some
question
whether such gifts are moral if given by ordinary persons. They
maintain
that such gifts can only be made by a Bodhisatta. We can see
that this is
not so if we consider how an individual becomes a Bodhisatta.
One can only
gradually become a Bodhisatta through fulfilling the perfections
to the
best of one's ability. Therefore, we should not censor a person
who
through great motivation and faith bravely makes a gift of his
own person.
3) Gifts of property (//Vatthu//) and the gift of safety (//Abhaya//).
The first term refers to material things. The second term refers
to acts
of mercy towards a person, either granting him life or property.
This
generally comes from kings or governments.
4) Gifts for future lives (//Vattanissita//) and gifts
for liberation
(//Vivattanissita//).
The first term is for gifts given in hopes of future worldly
or heavenly
pleasures. The second term is for gifts given in hope of Nibbana.
5) Tainted gifts (//Savajja//) and untainted gifts (//Anavajja//).
An example of a tainted gift would be giving meat after having
killed an
animal. The gift directly involves an immoral act. We can see
the mixed
results of such gifts in the case of some fishermen. Because
they were
generous with what they obtained immorally in past lives, as
long as they
have improper livelihood (fishing) they were very successful
and
accumulate wealth. If they decide to change their livelihood,
they loose
their wealth. Untainted gifts, of course, are those given without
any
immoral act being involved.
6) Gifts given with one's own hand (//Sahatthika//) and
gifts given
through a command (//Anattika//).
The first is self-explanatory. The second includes gifts that
one asks
someone else to make, all gifts made through another person.
Gifts given
with one's own hand are more potent than gifts given through
a command
(see the //Payasi Sutta//, "Dialogues of the Buddha",II,p.374).
7) Carefully prepared gifts (//Sakkacca//) and carelessly
prepared gifts
(//Asakkacca//).
An illustration of these two ways of classifying gifts would
be presenting
flowers of a tree. If one thinks that the flowers is sufficient
in itself,
then it is careless generosity. If one makes the effort to arrange
the
flowers and to present them as attractively as possible, then
it is
carefully prepared generosity. The comments of some scholars
of old have
been translated as saying these mean gifts made "after paying
due respect"
or "without due respect". Some people misunderstand these remarks,
thinking they mean that one should pay respects to the person
receiving
the gift; but here, "paying due respect" means "preparing the
gift well".
8) A gift that is accompanied by wisdom (//nana-sampayutta//)
and a gift
unaccompanied by wisdom (//nanavippayutta//).
If one makes a donation while one is aware of volitional acts
(//kamma//)
and their results, etc., then it is a gift accompanied by wisdom.
If a
gift is made because one is imitating others then it is unaccompanied
by
wisdom. In its most developed form, this would be a gift given
while the
receiver develops insight: "I am impermanent; the receiver and
the gift
are impermanent." But knowing that there is cause and effect
is sufficient
for the gift to be accompanied by wisdom.
9) Spontaneous gifts (//Sasankharika//) and unspontaneous
gifts
(//Asankharika//).
Donating after being urged or prompted is unspontaneous giving.
Giving
without being urged is spontaneous giving. This does not mean
that if
someone asks for something and the person asked gives that that
person has
given an unspontaneous gift. It is only when a request has to
be repeated
because the person is reluctant to give that the element of
urging comes
in. If the person gives as soon as the request is made, then
it is a
spontaneous gift.
10) Joyful gift (//Somanassa//) and equanimous gift (//Upekkha//).
A joyful gift is one made by a person in a happy mood. An equanimous
gift
is made by a person whose mind is equanimous.
11) A gift made in accordance with Dhamma (//Dhammiya//)
and a gift made
not in accordance with the Dhamma (//Adhammiya//).
Giving property that has been justly earned is giving in accordance
with
the teachings (//Dhamma//). Giving property obtained by immoral
means,
such as stealing, is giving not in accordance with the teachings.
The
second type of giving is a moral deed, but the good results
of such gifts
are not as great as those of the first type. The results can
be compared
to the types of plants that will grow up from a good seed and
from a bad
seed.
12) Enslaving gifts (//Dasa//) and liberating gifts (//Bhujissa//).
Donating with a desire for worldly pleasures is the giving that
enslaves.
The donator is the slave of his master (the craving for worldly
pleasures). Gifts made with the desire for the peaceful bliss
of Nibbana
are revolutionary gifts for the donor is rebelling against the
master,
craving.
From the beginning of our life-cycles we crave sensual pleasures.
We are
slaves to this craving and work continuously to satisfy it.
Not content
with pleasures in our present life, we make gifts in anticipation
of
living luxuriously in future lives. These are enslaving gifts.
Before we
encounter the Buddha-Dhamma, these gifts are considered to be
the best.
But once we are fortunate enough to hear the teachings of the
Buddha we
understand how powerful craving is, how difficult it is to soothe
our
craving and how much we must suffer because of this craving.
As a result
we make gifts with the prospect of attaining Nibbana. These
are liberating
gifts.
13) Immovable gifts (//Thavara//) and portable gifts (//Athavara//).
Immovable gifts include establishing pagodas, monasteries, rest
houses,
wells, ponds, etc. Portable gifts are things to be used for
a short period
of time, such as food, robes, etc.
14) Gifts accompanied by other gifts (//Saparivara//) and
unaccompanied
gifts (//Aparivara//).
For example, one makes a gift of robes to a monk accompanying
the gift
with other things. This is the sort of gift that results in
special signs
on the body for Bodhisattas. If one gives only the intended
item, it is an
Unaccompanied gift.
15) Established gifts (//Nibaddha//) and occasional gifts
(//Anibaddha//).
Established gifts are ones that are given on a daily basis or
at regular
intervals, such as food, etc. Occasional gifts are those given
only when
one is able to.
16) Tainted gifts (//Paramattha//) and untainted gifts
(//Apparamattha//).
Gifts which are affected by craving and wrong view are tainted
gifts.
Untainted gifts are not affected by these. According to the
Abhidhamma
method, wrong thoughts are an aspect of wrong view alone. But
wrong view
is always connected with craving, so both are mentioned. When
the giver
looses sight of the goal of Nibbana, due to craving and wrong
view, then
the gift is tainted. In such cases the donor may wish to become
king of
the second deva abode, etc. Such wishes are not effective ways
of
attaining perfect peace. //Dana// can be made during periods
when the
teachings of a Buddha do not exist. Gifts made during such times
will
always be tainted gifts. Untainted gifts can only be made during
a period
when a Buddha's teachings are alive. Therefore, we should strive
to make
untainted gifts while we have the opportunity.
17) The gift of leftovers (//Ucchittha//) and untouched
gifts
(//anucchittha//).
If one donates food taken from food that has been prepared for
immediate
consumption, that is called "the highest gift" (//Agga dana//);
and, as it
is not left over, it is an untouched gift. If we make a gift
of food taken
from the meal we are still eating, that is also considered an
untouched
gift (literally: non-leftover), a noble gift. It is only if
we give the
food left after we have finished eating that it is a gift of
leftovers.
This does not refer to a modest gift given by someone who cannot
afford a
more expensive gift. But if the donor can afford better things
than those
he gives, then they are gifts of leftovers.
18) Gifts given while still alive (//Sajiva//) and gifts
made after one's
death (//Accaya//).
A monk cannot leave gifts to others after his death. Even if
he should do
so, it would not be a true act of //Dana//. A monk can give
from his own
property during his lifetime. Or, someone can take from a monk's
possession as a token of intimacy (//Vissasagaha//). Or, if
a monk owns
something jointly with someone else, his partner can receive
it after the
monk dies. Otherwise, the monk's property becomes the property
of the
Order after his death. Therefore, only laymen can designate
gifts to be
made after their death.
19) Gifts to individuals (//Puggalika//) and gifts to the Sangha
(//Sanghika//).
Gifts intended for one person, two people, etc. are gifts for
individuals.
Gifts for the Order of monks or Order of nuns (including all
noble persons
-- enlightened persons -- who are disciples of the Buddha) are
gifts to
the Sangha. While the second type of gift is being made, the
donor should
be clear that the sum total of those in the Sangha are the object
of the
gift. In the //Dakkhina-vibhanga Sutta// ("Middla Length Sayings",
I p.
302) there are 14 kinds of gifts to individuals mentioned and
7 kinds of
gifts to the Sangha.
Gifts to individuals (14 kinds)
The 14 kinds of gifts to individuals, in descending order of
merit, are
gifts made to 1) a Teaching Buddha, 2) a Non-teaching Buddha,
3) one who
has attained the fruition state of Arahantship, 4) one who has
attained
the path of Arahantship, 5) one who has attained the fruition
state of
Non-returner, 6) one who has attained the path of Non-returner,
7) one who
has attained the fruition state of Once-returner, 8) one who
has attained
the path of Once-returner, 9) one who has attained the fruition
state of
Stream-enterer, 10) one who has attained the path of Stream-enterer,
11)
one who is not attached to sense-pleasures (i.e., who has attained
the
absorption states), 12) an ordinary individual who is moral,
13) an
ordinary individual who is of poor moral habits, 14) an animal.
5 Good Results of Giving Food
There are five good results of feeding animals: long life, good
looks,
well-being, strength and intelligence. These good results occur
for about
one hundred lives for the donor. Giving a meal to an immoral
layman gives
these results for a thousand lives; to a moral layman during
a period when
a Buddha's teachings are not prevalent gives these results for
a hundred
thousand lives; to ascetics during these same periods, for ten
billion
lives; to moral people when a Buddha's teachings are prevalent
(i.e., the
moral laymen pays respects to the Triple Gem and to //Ariyas//
(enlightened people)), for an //asankheyya// (one followed by
140 ciphers)
of lives; and, to noble (enlightened) persons up to the Buddha,
for
//asankheyya// upon //asankheyya// of lives. The Commentary
says that by
those who pay respects to the Triple Gem are meant those who
are trying to
reach the first path of Stream-winner.
There is no mention in this list of fourteen types of individuals
who are
immoral monks. Gifts to such individuals are only mentioned
during periods
when a Buddha's teaching is not available. So there is a tendency
to view
such gifts as tainted. But we should remember that someone who
becomes a
Buddhist at the very last pays respects to the Triple Gem and
therefore is
trying to reach the first path of Stream-winner. And, if giving
things to
immoral people during the period, when there is no Buddha-Dhamma
leads to
good results, then there can be no doubt that giving to such
people when
the Buddha-Dhamma is alive will yield good results. Ten qualities
are said
to belong to an immoral monk according to the "Questions of
King Milinda".
These include respect for the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, etc.
So, it would
not be accurate to say that gifts given to immoral monks are
given in vain
or that it constitutes wrong doing from the point of view of
the donor.
Another point of view is that when the Buddha's teachings are
not
available, people cannot try to follow them, but since they
can strive to
follow them when they are around, it is wrong to give gifts
to those who
choose not to do so. This attitude is wrong also. For the Buddha
said to
Ananda, after listing the 7 kinds of gifts to the Sangha: "There
will be
in the future monks who are only monks in name, who will tie
a strip of
cloth around their necks. People will make gifts to them with
the
intention of giving to the true Sangha which is morally pure.
Even this
type of gift to the Sangha will give innumerable good results."
4 Purities for Generosity
The first of the four purities for generosity is: a gift is pure
if the
donor is moral, even if the recipient turns out to be immoral.
On the
other hand, if we should give to an immoral person in order
to support his
bad practices -- that is to say, if we give with bad intentions
-- then we
are at fault. This is why it is important to be mindful, giving
with
thoughts such as, "It is good to give to someone who has come
to my door,"
etc. When there is right intention, the gift is blameless.
7 Types of Gifts to the Sangha
There are seven types of Gifts to the Sangha: gifts made to 1)
the Order
of monks (//Bhikkhus//) and nuns (//Bhikkhunis//) during the
Buddha's
lifetime or 2) after his demise; 3) the Order of monks only;
4) the Order
of nuns only; 5) a group of monks and nuns (because one could
not afford
to give to all monks and nuns); 6) a group of monks (because
one could not
afford to give to all -- but with the intention of giving to
all monks);
7) a group of nuns (for the same reason and with the same intention).
The appropriate way to make a gift to the Order of monks and
nuns led by
the Buddha after his demise is to present them with a statue
containing
relics and say, during the ceremony for the gift, "I donate
this to both
Orders led by the Buddha." As for gifts to be given to the Buddha
after
his death, they should be given to a monk who is dedicated to
the Buddha
or to the Sangha; for just as the parents' property goes to
the children
after the parents die, so too should gifts for the Buddha go
to monks and
to the Sangha after the demise of the Buddha.
During the Buddha's lifetime, people were generally less attached
to
personalities and so most gifts were to the Sangha as a whole.
So, at that
time, the monks generally used the requisites distributed by
the Order.
And that meant the monks were less inclined to pride, thinking,
"This
layman gave this monastery to me."
The example of Ugga
Those who wish to make gifts to the Sangha should emulate the
rich man
Ugga (his story is found in the second sutta of the //Gahapati
Vagga// of
the //Atthaka Nipata//, "The Book of Gradual Sayings" IV, pp
142 ff).
The Buddha mentioned to the monks that Ugga was possessed of
eight special
and wonderful qualities, but did not specify what they were.
One monk went
to Ugga to ask him. Ugga replied that he was not sure exactly
which
qualities the Buddha meant, but that he would explain what he
himself had
observed. He then explained that 1) when he first saw the Buddha
he had
been drinking but as soon as he saw the Buddha he became sober
and faith
arose in him. 2) The Buddha taught him the Four Noble Truths
and he became
a Stream-winner and established himself in the five precepts
with total
abstinence from sexual intercourse (//Brahmacariya-panca-sila//).
3) He
told his four wives of his new way of life and offered to find
a husband
for any of them wishing to remarry. The eldest wife told him
of a man she
wished to marry and he arranged it without any feelings of jealousy.
4) He
shared his wealth with people leading moral lives. 5) He always
approached
monks with respect; listened to monks with respect; or, if they
did not
give a discourse, made a discourse himself. 6) Even though devas
told him
which monks were enlightened, which ones were moral and which
ones were
immoral, Ugga made no distinction when giving alms. 7) When
devas told him
the doctrine was well-taught by the Buddha he could reply that
he knew
this, not because they told him, but because he himself knew
this to be
true; and in all this, Ugga said that he did not feel pride
because devas
talked with him. 8) Finally, Ugga said that he was a Non-returner
(//Anagami//).
The sixth quality -- giving to the monks without distinguishing
between
enlightened, moral and immoral monks -- should be understood
as follows:
when Ugga gave to the monks, he kept in mind the Community of
Noble
Disciples (//Ariyasangha//) as the object of his donation when
the
recipient was an Arahat, and he kept in mind the Order of monks
(//Bhikkhusangha//) when the recipient was an immoral monk.
Thus, he could
give without discriminating. Laymen should firmly keep in mind
the Order
of monks as a whole, driving away any attachment to individuals.
In this
way their gifts will be generosity to the Sangha, like Ugga's.
This,
however, is not always easy. Take the example of a layman who
decides to
make a gift to the Sangha and asks for a representative of the
Order of
monks to be sent. If a novice is sent, the layman will be disappointed.
If
a monk of long-standing is sent, the layman will be proud and
feel
partiality. In such cases, the gift is not perfect generosity
to the
Sangha. Someone who makes a gift without concerning himself
about whether
the recipient is a novice, an important monk, a young monk,
a wise monk or
an ignorant monk, this person can make a true gift to the Sangha.
Gifts to Individual Monks representing the Sangha
There is another example of a layman who had given a monastery
and who
wished to make a gift to the Sangha. After preparing everything,
he went
to the Order of monks and asked for them to send a representative.
The
Order designated a monk who chanced to be an immoral monk. Even
though the
layman knew the monk to be immoral, still he respectfully made
his gift
with as much attention as he would give to the Buddha. That
afternoon the
same monk came again and asked for a hoe in order to make some
repairs in
the monastery. This time the layman gave him what he wanted
without
showing him any respect; he simply kicked the hoe over in the
monk's
direction. When members of his family asked why he showed so
much respect
in the morning but none in the afternoon, he replied that in
the morning
he had paid respects to the Sangha, not to the immoral monk.
We do not agree with those who maintain that giving to immoral
persons is
like watering a poisonous plant. The volition of the donor as
the gift is
made must be taken into account. If the donor means to encourage
immoral
acts, then that is like watering a poisonous plant. But if the
donor's
attitude is like the layman's just mentioned, then the gift
is above
reproach.
Nor do we agree with those who maintain that the recipient's
character is
no concern of the donor, that the donor should give as though
the
recipient were an Arahant. Disciples of other teachers wrongly
believe
their teachers to be noble, enlightened, Arahats. This sort
of wrong
belief is called "drawing the wrong conclusion" (//Micchadhimokkha//).
Surely it would be drawing the wrong conclusion for someone
to pretend an
immoral person was enlightened knowing full well that it was
not true.
The donor should bear in mind while making a gift that Bodhisattas
give
without discriminating. We should strive to do the same. In
that way, our
intention will not be to encourage someone in immoral acts,
nor will we be
drawing a wrong conclusion about the recipient's development,
and our gift
will be pure. Some people point out that it is difficult to
control our
minds in this way, especially when we have a person in front
of us that we
know to be immoral. The answer to this is that we should strive
to make
good intentions a habit. We should cultivate the habit of directing
our
gifts to the Sangha, as Ugga and the other laymen mentioned
above did.
4 kinds of Gifts to the Sangha
Four kinds of gifts to the Sangha are mentioned in "The Book
of
Discipline" (//Vinaya//), but these do not concern the layman.
They are
distinctions which are important for the monks who receive the
gifts so
they will know how to distribute the gifts inside the Order
of monks.
These four categories are: 1) face-to-face gifts to the Sangha
(//Sammukhabhuta sanghika//), 2) gifts made in the monastery
(//Aramattha
s.//), 3) gifts to the Sangha wherever (monks) may be (//Gata-gata
s.//),
4) gifts to the Sangha from the four corners of the world (//Catuddisa
s.//). Face-to-face gifts refer to offering to monks in a town
or village.
They are to be distributed among the monks present at the time.
Gifts made
in the monastery are to be divided among the monks residing
in the
monastery. Gifts to the Sangha wherever monks may be, mean that
if someone
gives several gifts to a solitary monk, he may divide them with
any monks
he encounters. On the other hand, if he is clever in using the
rules, he
can keep all the gifts. Gifts to the Sangha from the four corners
of the
world include immovable gifts, such as a monastery, which are
used by
monks coming from all over.
20) Gifts made at special times (//Kala//) and gifts made at
any time
(//Akala//).
Gifts made on special occasions such as giving Kathina robes
(at the end
of the rainy season), food for a sick monk, food for visiting
monks, etc.
are gifts made at special times. They result in specific good
results that
do not accompany gifts made at any time. For example, when the
time is
ripe for such deeds to bear fruit, if the donor wishes for something
special to eat he will receive it immediately.
21) Gifts made (in the recipient's) presence (//Paccakkha//)
and gifts
made without (the donor) being present (//Apaccakkha//).
22) Gifts that can be matched (//Sadisa//) and incomparable gifts
(//Asadisa//).
A gift that can be matched by someone else is the first type.
A gift that
cannot be equalled is an incomparable gift. Only one such gift
is given
during each Buddha's time. The story of the gift made during
Buddha
Gotama's time is found in the //Dhammapada// commentary (Buddhist
legends,
III, pp. 24-28).
The Incomparable Gift of King Pasenadi
King Pasenadi of Kosala entered into a contest with the citizens
of the
capital of Savatthi. Each tried to outdo the other in making
presents to
the Buddha and Sangha. After six rounds of giving, the king
felt
discouraged, but his queen, Mallika, said that he could win
by giving
things which the citizens could not obtain, such as white parasols
(symbol
of royality), elephants, and by having young ladies of the warrior
caste
present perfumes and fan the monks. So, King Pasenadi made the
incomparable gift to Gotama Buddha. And every other Buddha had
a similar
gift given to him by a layman.
TYPES OF GIFTS BY THREES
1) Gifts can be divided into three types as lesser (//Hina//),
medium
(//Mahjjhima//) and excellent (//Panita//).
The degrees of benevolence is determined according to the strength
of the
intention (//Chanda//), the conscious state (//Citta//), energy
(//Viriya//) and investigation (//Vimamsa//). When these four
elements are
weak, the gift is a lesser gift. When they are neither weak
nor strong,
the gift is a medium gift. When they are strong, the gift is
an excellent
gift, a gift of higher order.
If a gift is made through a desire for fame, it is a lesser gift.
If the
object of the gift is future well-being as a human or a celestial
being,
it is a medium gift. If the person making the gift does so in
imitation of
the Ariyas or Bodhisattas, paying homage to their good habits,
the gift is
an excellent gift.
At the first council, when the texts were being prepared, the
names of
those who gave monasteries were given to these monasteries.
For example,
the Jetavana monastery was named after the rich man Anathapindika
and
called the Anathapindikarama; the monastery given by Ghosita
was named the
Ghositarama. This was to encourage others to follow their example
and
acquire merits. So donors today should go along with this tradition,
but
in giving their name to a monastery they should keep under control
any
desire for fame through mindfulness.
Another way of understanding these three types of gifts is to
say that the
desire for well-being as a human or a celestial being is involved
in
lesser gifts; the desire for the knowledge of awakening (or
enlightenment)
as a disciple (//savaka-bodhi-nana//) or as a non-teaching Buddha
(//Pacceka-bodhi-nana//) is involved in a medium gift; whereas
desire for
the knowledge of one of the four paths (//magga-nana//). It
has been said
that in order for the gift to become the foundation for Nibbana
(//Vivatta-nissita//), one should not be casual or careless
while making a
gift nor desire any particular stage of enlightenment.
2) A second group of three types of gifts are: gifts fit for
a slave
(//Dana-dasa//), gifts fit for friends (//Dana-sahaya//), and
gifts fit
for a master (//Dana-samin//).
If one gives a gift that is less valuable than what one is used
to using
oneself, it is a gift fit for a slave. If the gift's value is
equal to
what one spends on oneself, it is a gift fit for a friend. If
the gift is
more valuable or nobler than what one uses oneself, it is a
gift fit for a
master.
3) Again, gifts can be divided into three as follows: the gift
of the
texts of the doctrine (//Amisa-dhamma-dana//, literally: the
material gift
or the "raw" gift of the doctrine), the gift of mental objects
(//Dhamma-
dana 1//; in the sense of "dhamma" as mental activity), and
the gift to
the ultimate truth (//Dhamma-dana 2//; in the sense of "dhamma"
as the
truth concerning the nature of reality -- the truth which transcends
conditioning). This division by three is based on various possible
meanings of the word "Dhamma".
The gift of the texts of the doctrine (//Amisa-dhamma-dana, pr
Pariyatti//) means giving knowledge or theory of the texts.
This knowledge
or theory is the thing given. The listener is the recipient.
The teacher
is the donor.
The first type of //Dhamma-dana// means giving the means to perceive
mental objects. In the Abhidhamma, six aspects are given for
mental
objects: 1) the five organs of sense (sight, hearing, smell,
taste and
touch -- the mind is already included in the term "mental objects"
--
//Pasadas//), 2) the sixteen subtle forms (//Sukhuma-rupa//),
3) the 89
states of consciousness (//Citta//), 4) 52 mental factors (//Cetasika//),
5) //Nibbana// and 6) Concepts (//Pannatti//). These include
mental
objects which exist and can appear to the mind.
One makes the gift of mental objects through curing another's
weak eyes,
or hearing, etc. The most complete form for this type of gift
to take is
in saving or sparing another's life (//Jivita-dana//).
The second type of //Dhamma-dana// is giving to the Dhamma, to
the
doctrine discovered by the Buddha and taught by him. In a sense,
the texts
themselves are also included here as they include the doctrine
to another
person, here, the gift is to the doctrine itself.
Gifts to the Dhamma, the Example of Ananda
An illustration of how a gift to the doctrine is made is found
in the
//Bhikkhaparampara Jataka// (no. 496). At one time, the Buddha
was
residing in the Jetavana monastery in Savatthi. One day a faithful
disciple reflected that he constantly paid honour to the Buddha
and to the
Sangha, and he wondered if it is possible to pay honour to the
Dhamma. So
he asked the Buddha how he should go about it. The Buddha replied
that he
should give food, robes, etc. to the monks but with the intention
of
honouring the doctrine as cultivated by them. The disciple asked
who would
be an appropriate monk to receive such a gift, and the Buddha
told him to
make the gift to Ananda. So he invited Ananda and gave him a
rich offering
of flowers, food and enough cloth for three robes, keeping in
mind as he
gave that the object of his gift was the doctrine practised
by Ananda.
But Ananda thought to himself that this gift would be more worthy
of the
chief disciple known as the Treasurer of the Doctrine, so he
made the gift
over to Sariputta. Sariputta in turn decided to give the gift
to the Lord
of the Doctrine, the Buddha. The Buddha, seeing no one higher
than himself
in this respect, ate the food and accepted the cloth for the
robes.
In this story, the disciple is the donor, the flowers, food and
cloth are
the things given, and the Dhamma realized by Ananda, Sariputta
and the
Buddha is the recipient. Another example of gifts to the Dhamma
is found
in King Asoka's donations of monasteries. Each monastery he
gave was done
with the intention of giving to every line of the doctrine.
Many people
have heard of Asoka's example and some have wanted to give in
imitation of
it. But it is important that they understand that the main objective
is
the paying of respects to the Dhamma and not merely the giving
of a
monastery.
We can better appreciate this type of gift if we are aware of
the Dhamma's
importance. Buddhaghosa makes the wish, "May the true Dhamma
long endure!
May all beings be respectful towards the Dhamma!" (//Ciram titthatu
saddhamo, Dhamma hontu sagarava sabbepi satta//. See the
end of this
commentary, //Atthasalini//, on the //Dhammasangani// of the
Abhidhamma --
A Buddhist Manual, cited above.) The Dhamma is of such
importance because
as long as it is present the teachings of the Buddha will not
lose their
strength. Everyone who has respect for the Dhamma will have
respect for
the Buddha's teachings. As the Buddha said, "He who sees the
Dhamma sees
me." And just before his demise he said, "The Dhamma will be
your teacher
after I am gone."
4) Another way of determining three types of gifts is to divide
them
according to gifts which is painful to give (//Dukkhasa-dana//),
great
gifts (//Maha-dana//) and general gifts (//Samanna-dana//).
Gifts which it is Painful to Give
The example of Darubhandaka
An example of a gift which it is painful or difficult to give
is found in
the story of Darubhandaka-Mahatissa (found in the commentary
to the
//Anguttara//, "The Book of Gradual Sayings"). Darubhandaka
was a poor man
who lived in Mahagama (in Sri Lanka) and who earned his living
selling
fire wood. He said to his wife that though the Buddha had spoken
in favour
of continual generosity (//Nibaddha-dana//), they could not
afford this.
On the other hand they could give twice each month. So they
decided to
give some rice the next day. Now at that time the monks received
food in
plenty and the young monk who received their rice threw it away.
The wife saw this and reported it to her husband. The husband
said, "We
are so poor we cannot give the monks food that will please them.
What
should we do?"
"Those who have children are not poor", replied the wife in order
to
encourage him and advised him to obtain money by placing their
daughter as
a servant. They obtained twelve kahapanas and were able to buy
a cow.
Because of the pure moral intentions of the couple, the cow
yielded great
quantities of milk which they offered twice each day to the
monks. The
milk they got in the evening was used for making cheese and
butter and the
milk they got in the morning the wife used in cooking milk porridge.
These offerings were satisfactory to the monks.
"Well now," the husband told his wife one day, "thanks to our
daughter we
are no longer ashamed. We are able to make offerings acceptable
to the
monks. You should not miss the opportunity for making donations
to the
monks during my absence. I am going to hire out my services
in order to
earn some extra money so that we can have our daughter back."
And he went
to work for six months in a sugar mill.
When he had saved up twelve kahapanas, he set out on the road
home. On the
way he met Pindapatiya-Tissa, a monk from the monastery Ambariya-vihara.
This monk's name indicated that he made a practice of mixing
all the food
he received in his bowl and ate it without enjoying the separate
tastes of
the various foods given. Darubhandaka walked along with the
monk,
listening to him talk about the doctrine. Eventually they approached
a
village where a man was coming out carrying cooked rice.
Darubhandaka, seeing it was mealtime, and wishing to offer the
monk food,
asked the man to sell the rice for one kahapana, even though
the rice was
not worth a twentieth as much. The man, realising that there
must be some
special reason for offering so much money, declined. Darubhandaka
increased his offer to two, then three kahapanas. Still the
man refused.
Finally, Darubhandaka explained why he wanted the food and confessed
that
he had offered all his money. The monk, at his request, was
already
waiting under the shade of a tree for his meal. And, if he sold
the rice,
the man too would make merit.
Finally the man sold the rice for twelve kahapanas. Darubhandaka
took it
with great pleasure to the monk. Pindapatiya-Tissa only accepted
half of
the rice, but Darubhandaka urged him to take all, saying, "Venerable
sir,
this food is only sufficient for one person. I will not eat
any of it. I
bought it for you. Please take pity on me and accept all the
food." So the
monk accepted the other half.
After the monk finished his meal they continued their journey
together and
he asked Darubhandaka about himself. Darubhandaka related his
story very
frankly and the monk thought to himself, "This man has made
a gift which
is very difficult to make. I should be grateful to him. If I
can find a
suitable place for meditation, I will make the effort to attain
Arahantship in one sitting. Though my skin and sinews and bones
become
dry, though all my flesh and blood dry up, I will not stir until
I attain
the final goal!" When he arrived at the monastery named Tissamaharama
he
made his great effort, not even getting up to go on the alms
round.
When the seventh day dawned he became an Arahant together with
the four
branches of logical analysis. And he thought to himself, "My
body is so
exhausted. Do I have long to live?" And through the powers he
had
acquired, he knew that he would soon die. So he put everything
in his cell
in order and taking his robe and bowl went to the center of
the monastery
compound. There he had the drums sounded to assemble all the
monks.
When all the monks were assembled, the head Thera asked who had
called for
the assembly. Pindapatiya-Tissa replied that he had done so.
When asked
why, he replied that he did not desire anything, but that if
any of the
monks had any misgivings about the Paths and Fruition-states
of the four
degrees of enlightenment, they should ask him for an explanation.
The head
Thera replied that no one had any questions. He then asked why
Pindapatiya-Tissa had persevered in his practice at the cost
of his life.
So Tissa related all that had happened and informed the monks
that he
would pass away the same day. Then he said, "May my corpse and
the
structure supporting it not move until Darubhandaka comes and
lifts it."
And he passed away that very day.
King Kakavannatissa came and ordered his men to take the body
and the
supporting structure to the place for cremation, but they could
not move
the body or structure. After enquiring about the reason for
this, the king
sent for Darubhandaka, dressed him in fine clothes, and asked
him to move
what his men had not been able to budge. Darubhandaka did as
he was told,
and was able to lift the body and the structure over his head.
No sooner
had he done so than they rose in the air and travelled through
the air to
the funeral pyre.
Darubhandaka's gift is called a gift which it is painful or difficult
to
give because of the great sacrifice he had to make in giving
it. His six-
month's wages which were to redeem his daughter from servitude
were used
to buy one meal of cooked rice to give to a monk. And his daughter
was a
servant because he needed money to buy a cow in order to give
food
acceptable to the monks.
The example of Bhattabhatika
Another example is found in the story of Sukha Samanera's past
life (when
his name was Bhattabhatika) in the //Dhammapada// commentary
(Buddhist
Legends, II, pp. 318-324). Bhattabhatika was a poor villager
who wanted to
eat a rich man's meal. The rich man, Gandha, told him that if
he would
work for him for three years, he would give him such a meal.
Bhattabhatika
agreed. But when he obtained his meal, a Pacceka Buddha came,
and he gave
his meal to the Buddha without hesitation.
The example of the Poor Girl.
In the //Ummadanti Jataka// (no. 527) we have the example of
a poor girl
who was about to dress herself in clothes which she worked for
three years
to acquire, but at that moment a monk who was a follower of
the Buddha
Kassapa came by, covering himself with leaves because he had
been robbed
of his robes. Her gift, too, was one which it is difficult to
give.
Great gifts (//Maha-dana//) are those of great magnitude. For
example,
King Asoka, when he learned from Moggaliputta-Tissa Thera that
there were
84,000 sections of the Dhamma (//Dhamma-khandas//), honoured
these by
giving 84,000 monasteries. That is why Moggaliputta-Tissa said,
"No one
has given this much during the Buddha's dispensation, not even
during the
Buddha's lifetime. Your offering is the greatest." Even so,
Asoka's gift
is not to be compared with the incomparable gift (//Asadise//)
given by
King Pasenadi during the Buddha's lifetime, for Asoka's gift
was done on
his own initiative whereas Pasenadi's was done in competing
with the
citizens of the capital city Savatthi.
General gifts (//Samanna-dana//) mean those which are neither
difficult to
give nor of great magnitude.
5) Another way of determining three types of gifts is found
in the
commentary to the //Vinaya// ("The Book of the Discipline",
VI, p.222,
note 14): one gives to the //Sangha// (the Order of monks),
a shrine or to
an individual after having determined to make a gift to one
of these
three. These are called righteous gifts (//Dhammika Danas//)
because the
gifts are made in a fitting manner, in accordance with the Dhamma;
they
are suitable gifts. Further details concerning these three sorts
of gifts
will be found below in the discussion of nine types of gifts.
TYPES OF GIFTS BY FOURS
The texts do not give any lists of types of gifts by fours. We
may take
the mention of gifts of the four requisites, found in the //Vinaya//
(The
Book of the Discipline), "Middle Lengths Sayings" (I, pp. 325,
335, for
example), etc., as four types of gifts. These four reqisites
which it is
appropriate to give to monks and nuns are: 1) robe-material
or robes
(//civara-dana//), 2) food (//pindapata-dana//), 3) lodging
(//senasana-
dana//), and 4) medicines (//bhesajja-dana//). The third gift
includes
monasteries, sites for monasteries, beds, etc.
Gifts may also be divided into four types according to the purity
of the
giver and receiver. These will be discussed in more detail in
the last
section below on the good results of gifts. The four possible
combinations
are: 1) the giver is moral but the receiver is not; 2) the receiver
is
moral but the giver is not; 3) both are immoral; 4) both are
moral.
TYPES OF GIFTS BY FIVES
1) There are five types of gifts which are to be given at the
right time
(//Kala-dana//). They are found in "The Gradual Sayings" (III,
p.33): one
gives 1) to a newcomer, 2) to someone going away, 3) to the
sick, 4) when
food is hard to get, 5) the first-fruits of the field and orchard
are
first presented to the virtuous. The fifth type refers to gifts
made by
farmers, but we can understand it to include gifts made by those
who have
gained something through their own effort and who first make
a gift of
some of it before using it for themselves.
The verse concluding this description of five types of gifts
includes the
statement that "both those who praise the offering and those
who do the
deed share in its merit."
2) There are five types of gifts made by those who are immoral
(//Asappurisa-dana//): a person who is immoral gives 1) unrespectfully,
without taking care, in an unthorough manner (//Asakkaccam//);
2) without
having first paid respects, or without considering if the gifts
are
appropriate or not (//Acittikatva//); 3) without presenting
his gifts with
his own hands (//Asahattha//); 4) leftovers (//Apaviddha//);
5) without
the (right) view that one comes back again (according to the
deeds one has
done) (//Anagamanaditthiko// -- also known as "knowledge that
(the
results) of one's own deeds are one's own property", //Kammassakata-
panna//).
An example of the third type is found in the story of King Payasi
who
could have given his gifts with his own hands, but had his attendant
Uttara do so instead (See "Dialogues of the Buddha", II, no.
23).
These five types of gifts and the next five are found in "The
Gradual
Sayings" (III, p.129).
3) There are also the five types of gifts given by moral men
(//Sappurisa-
dana//): a person who is moral gives 1) respectfully, taking
care, in a
thorough manner (//Sakkaccam//); 2) having first paid respects,
or
considering whether the gifts are appropriate or not (//Cittikatva//);
3)
presenting his gifts with his own hands (//Sahattha//); 4) gifts
which are
not leftovers (//Anapaviddha//); 5) with the (right) view that
one comes
back again (according to the deeds one has done) (//Agamanaditthiko//).
4) Another five types of gifts given by moral men are given together
with
the good results coming from them (see "The Gradual Sayings",
III, p.130).
The good man gives 1) having faith (in the law of cause and
effect)
(//Saddha-dana//), 2) respectfully, taking care, in a thorough
manner
(//Sakkacca-dana//); 3) when it is timely (//Kala-dana//); 4)
out of
kindness (//Anuggaha-dana//); 5) without harming himself or
others
(//Anupaghata-dana//). The third type means that one offers
food when it
is mealtime, robes on the suitable occasion, etc.
All five of these types of gifts result in wealth, riches and
great
property. In addition, each of the five gives the following
results (in
the same order): 1) one is fair to look upon, handsome, as beautiful
as a
lotus; 2) one's family and subordinates pay attention, listen
to what one
says and serve one keeping the goal of right knowledge in view;
3) the
possessions that one gets are obtained at the right time and
are abundant;
4) the mind is well disposed to enjoy in full the joy resulting
from the
senses; 5) no harm comes, to one's property -- at no time and
from no
direction, whether it be fire or water, governments (literally:
kings) or
thieves, or impious heirs.
5) The five opposites of these types of gifts are not given in
the texts.
But we can assume that five corresponding gifts made by immoral
men would
be:
1. Giving without belief in the law of cause and effect; that
is, giving
out of imitation of others or because one is afraid of being
criticised
(//Asaddha-dana//). Through such gifts, the donor will be wealthy
later,
but he will not be handsome.
2. Giving without properly preparing what is given; giving carelessly
(//Asakkacca-dana//). Through such gifts, wealth comes, but
one's
followers may not be obedient.
3. Giving at an unsuitable time (//Akala-dana//). One will obtain
wealth,
but the results may not be so many or come at the right time.
4. Giving as if doing one's duty, but without any intention of
honouring
the receiver (//Ananuggaha-dana//). One will receive wealth
but one's
property will be subject to destruction or to problems coming
from
enemies.
In reference to timely gifts and gifts given at an unsuitable
time, one
should be mindful not to make donations to the Buddha, monks,
etc, at the
wrong time, even if one has the best of intentions. For example,
one
should not offer light during the daytime when it is light or
give food in
the afternoon to monks, as it is against their rules for them
to eat in
the afternoon.
6) There are five types of gifts which ordinary people think
are included
in benevolence but which are harmful, unmeritorious. These include
1) a
gift of intoxicants (//Majja-dana//); 2) a gift of a festival
(//Samajja-
dana//); 3) a gift of woman (//Itthi-dana//); 4) a gift of a
bull
(//Usabha-dana//); 5) a gift of pictures (//Cittakamma-dana//).
These
gifts are mentioned in reference to gifts to monks (see "The
Book of
Discipline", VI, p.207). The last three are gifts made to excite
sensual
desire -- Women given for sexual pleasure, bulls to be led to
mate with
cows, and pornographic pictures.
These were mentioned by the Buddha as immoral gifts because the
donor
cannot give them out of good intentions. Some people think that
they
should give opium to someone who is addicted to opium because
he will die
without it. They consider that they are givin them life (//Jivita-dana//).
But the intention behind such gifts cannot be benevolent, and
it is
therefore not suitable.
Vessantara and the Gift of Intoxicants
In the //Vessantara Jataka// (no. 547) intoxicants are included
in the
great gift of seven hundreds made by Vessantara (see "Jataka
Stories", VI,
p.256). Some say that this is because Vessantara did not want
for anyone
to be able to say that there was anything missing in his great
gift. They
say that since Vessantara did not want anyone to drink the intoxicants,
there was no wrong intention involved. But persons such as Vessantara
are
not afraid of being criticized for not doing what is wrong.
The guilt
involved in intoxicants is in drinking it. Using it as a lotion
or for
medical purposes is not immoral. So we should rather say that
it is for
these reasons that Vessantara included liquor in his great gift.
7) The five great gifts (//Maha-danani//). In "The Book of Gradual
Sayings" (IV, pp. 167-169) five great gifts are mentioned. The
commentary
explains this as "five determinations in giving" (//cetana-danani//).
These five determinations correspond to keeping the five precepts.
The
noble disciple abstains from taking life, from stealing, from
sensuous
indulgence, from lying and from the use of intoxicants which
cause
indolence. Abstaining in this manner means that he gives to
countless
beings without fear, hatred or ill-will. Through giving in this
manner, he
gains unbounded fearlessness, amity and good-will.
TYPES OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF SIX
As with the groups of gifts by fours, there is no direct mention
of six
types of gifts in the texts. The commentary to the first part
of the
Abhidhamma ("The Expositor", pp. 101-108) gives a detailed description
of
six types of gifts in connection with the six senses: colour,
sound,
odour, taste, objects of touch and mind-objects.
TYPES OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF SEVEN
Similarly, a group of seven types of gifts are not mentioned
in the texts,
but we can include gifts to the Sangha (//Sangika-dana//). See
above under
`Types of Gifts by Pairs', part (19).
TYPES OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF EIGHT
1) Eight ways of making gifts are given in "The Book of Gradual
Sayings",
IV, p.160.
1. One gives spontaneously. (This would include paying respects
to the
receiver as soon as she or he arrives.)
2. One gives out of fear. (This would include fear of having
a bad
reputation or from fear of going to the lower realms of suffering.)
3. One gives, thinking, "he gave to me."
4. One gives, thinking, "he will give to me."
5. One gives, thinking, "it is good to give."
6. One gives, thinking, "I prepare food, they do not; though
I cook, I am
not worthy to stop giving to those who prepare no food." (This
means that
one does not wish to eat any food before giving to those who
do not
prepare their food -- i.e. monks.)
7. One gives in order to have a good reputation.
8. One gives in order to attain a more malleable mind. (This
would be
giving with the idea that it will help one to be better concentrated
and
that it will help in gaining insight.)
The eighth of these ways of giving is the best, as it leads one
to attain
the states of absorption (//Jhanas//). And, whether concentration
is
developed as highly as this or not, it leads one to the unconditioned
state (//Nibbana//). The first seven ways of giving do not encourage
the
mind to develop in concentration. The first and fifth ways of
giving are
of great excellence (//Panita//), however. The seventh way of
giving is a
lower sort (//Hina//), and the others (2,3,4 and 6) are of average
worth
(//Majjhima//). (Cf. Types of gifts by threes, (1).)
We have already mentioned that there are two kinds of giving:
1.
meritorious giving (//Punnavisaya-dana//) and 2. worldly giving
(//Lokavisaya-dana//). (See above, Types of gifts). Of these
eight ways of
giving the first, fifth and eighth are meritorious gifts whereas
the
others are worldly giving.
2) Another group of eight ways of making gifts is given in the
chapter
following the first list "The Book of Gradual Sayings", IV,
p.161):
1. One gives out of affection (taking //Chanda// to mean "affection"
(//pema//) as the commentary says). (This includes the donor's
knowing the
receiver and feeling affection for him or her.)
2. One gives out of exasperation. (One is unwilling to
give and feels
hatred, but the act cannot be avoided.)
3. One gives out of delusion (//Moha//). (This includes gifts
made through
foolishness and ignorance, by someone who does not understand
the law of
cause and effect.)
4. One gives out of fear (//Bhaya//). (Fear of having a bad reputation,
fear of going to the lower realms, fear resulting from threats
made by the
recipient.)
5. One gives, thinking, "This is the tradition of my ancestors.
I must
carry on the tradition."
6. One gives, thinking, "I will be reborn in a heavenly realm."
7. One gives, thinking, "Gifts bring my heart peace; joy and
gladness are
obtained."
8. One gives in order to attain a more malleable mind (for better
concentration and insight -- as above).
With this group, as before, the eighth is the best; the sixth
and seventh
are excellent also. These three are meritorious giving. The
first five
ways of giving are lower sorts of giving and are of the worldly
type of
gifts.
3) There are eight types of (good) rebirths resulting from gifts
(//Danupapatti//). These are found in "Gradual Sayings" (VI,
p.163; see
also, "Dialogues of the Buddha", III, p.240).
For each type a virtuous person gives to monks or moral men hoping
for
something in return. For the first type he can see for himself,
for the
others he hears of the good things associated with different
planes of
existence -- on the human plane and higher. For the first seven
types the
virtuous person fixes his mind on the thought, directs his attention
to it
and develops the thought of being reborn in his next life in
the plane
mentioned. For the eighth type, he must develop freedom from
greed. "The
mental aspiration of the virtuous prospers because of its purity
(//Visuddhatta//)", the Buddha said.
A person gives with the intention of being reborn in the following
planes
of existence and therefore is reborn:
1. as a wealthy human being,
2. in the plane of the four great kings (the guardians of the
four
cardinal points) (//Catu-Maharajika-deva//),
3. in the plane of the thirty-three (//Tavatimsa//).
4. in the Yama plane
5. in the Tusita plane,
6. in the plane of the devas who delight in creating (//Nimmana-rati//),
7. in the plane of the devas who have power over other's creations
(//Paranimmita-vasavatti//),
8. in the Brahma planes.
For all the planes above the human plane, one is motivated because
one
hears that beings in those planes are beautiful, enjoy great
pleasure and
live for a long time. The Brahma planes are not directly reached
through
generosity, but through the four sublime abodes (//Brahma-vihara//):
loving kindness (//Metta//), compassion (//Karuna//), sympathetic
joy
(//Mudita//) and equanimity (//Upekkha//); or, through the absorption
states (//Jhanas//), or through insight (for the planes which
are the
domain of non-returners).
4) The distinction between the fact that gifts can lead
to rebirth in the
human world and six deva planes whereas access to the Brahma
planes comes
through developing concentration and insight is made clear in
the
discourse following the one above ("Gradual Sayings", IV, pp.
164-166).
The Buddha says that there are three foundations of meritorious
acts:
gifts, morality, and meditation (//Bhavana//, developing concentration
and
insight). If concentration and insight are not developed, if
a person only
does meritorious acts of giving and observing the moral rules,
then he
will be reborn in eight possible states, depending on whether
these two
types of meritorious acts are developed on a small scale (the
first case),
a medium scale (the second case), or to a high degree (numbers
3-8).
Meritorious acts based on giving and observing morality lead to rebirth as
1. a human being of the lower type who experiences bad-luck (the
commentary mentions trappers, rush-plaiters, cartwrights and
vermin-
killers),
2. men who are fortunate (the commentary mentions nobles, Brahmins,
merchants),
3. a deva in the plane of the four great kings,
4. a deva in the plane of the thirty-three,
5. a deva in the Yama plane,
6. a deva in the Tusita plane,
7. a deva in the plane of those who delight in creating,
8. a deva in the plane of those who have powers over others' creations.
5) The following discourse ("Gradual Sayings", IV, p.166) lists
the eight
types of gifts made by a moral person (//Sappurisa-dana//):
1) clean
(things) (this would include making the gifts pure, clean and
attractive),
2) choice gifts, 3) suitable gifts (for the receiver), 4) timely
gifts, 5)
gifts given with care (this would include giving to those who
are moral,
who follow the Buddha's teachings rather than to those who are
immoral as
well as the fact that one would choose only good gifts if one
possesses
good and bad things that could be given), 6) one gives continuously,
7)
without calming the mind, 8) regretting that one gave after
having done
so.
TYPE OF GIFTS BY GROUPS OF NINE
There is mention in "The Book of Discipline" (VI, p.222) that
there are
nine gifts that are not legally valid. They are given in detail
in the
commentary (see "The Book of Discipline", VI, p.222, note 12).
Gifts which
are meant for the Sangha, a shrine or an individual (see Types
of Gifts by
Threes, 4)) but which a monk causes the donor to give to another
group of
monks, another shrine or to an individual (i.e., all nine possibilities
of
the combinations) are illegal. In other words, once someone
has made up
his mind to make a gift to an Order of monks, a shrine or an
individual,
it is wrong for another person to